critical thinking glossary

Ad hoc: An additional hypothesis to defend a theory against contradictory evidence 

Ad hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself 

Ambiguity: Uncertainty or inexactness of meaning in language 

Analogy: A comparison between two things that are similar in some respects 

Appeal to common practice: Arguing that something is right because it is commonly done 

Appeal to emotion: Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid argument 

Appeal to ignorance: Arguing that something is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa

Appeal to pity: Attempting to persuade through emotional appeals of pity 

Appeal to popularity: Arguing that something must be true because many people believe it 

Appeal to tradition: Arguing that something is right because it has always been done that way 

Argument from nature: The idea that what is natural is good or right, and what is unnatural is bad or wrong

Begging the question: Assuming the conclusion in the premise

Bias: Prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another 

Burden of proof: The obligation to prove one's assertion 

Circular: Using the conclusion to support the premise

Cogent: Clear, logical, and convincing 

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses

Counterfactual: Relating to or expressing what has not happened or is not the case 

Credibility: The quality of being trusted and believed in 

Deductive logic: A type of reasoning, which starts with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion 

Deontology: An ethical theory focused on rules and duties 

Ethical dilemma: A situation in which a difficult choice must be made between two or more conflicting ethical principles 

Equivocation fallacy: Using a word in two different senses in an argument 

Euphemism: A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing

Generalization: A general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases 

Groupthink: The practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility 

Ideology: A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy 

Invalid argument: An argument that does not follow the rules of logic 

Irrelevant: Not connected with or relevant to something 

Logical validity: The property of an argument whereby if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true 

Moral absolutism: The view that there are universal moral principles that apply to all people in all situations 

Moral agency: The capacity to act morally and be held responsible for one's actions 

Moral hazard: The risk that a party will behave recklessly because they are shielded from the consequences of their actions 

Moral intuition: The idea that we have immediate moral knowledge of certain basic truths 

Moral worth: The value of an action based on its moral principles 

Necessary condition: A condition that must be present for an event to occur 

Paternalism: The policy or practice on the part of people in positions of authority of restricting the freedom and responsibilities of those subordinate to them in the subordinates' supposed best interest 

Personal account: A subjective explanation or rationale 

Post hoc: Assuming that because one event preceded another, the first caused the second 

Premise: A previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion 

Reasoning: The process of using logic to form conclusions 

Reductio ad absurdum: Disproving a statement by showing that its consequences would be absurd 

Relativism: The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute

Rhetorical moves: Persuasive techniques used in arguments 

Soundness: The quality of being based on valid reason or good judgment 

Steel man: A method of refuting an argument by rebutting a strong version of it 

Straw man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack 

Valid: Well-founded on evidence and corresponding accurately to the real world